Postactivation Potentiation
Postactivation potentiation (PAP) is the enhancement of force production following muscle activation (Sale, 2002). Generating a PAP effect is reported to increase physical performance, where voluntary stimulus at near maximal exertion prior to testing has reported increments in several performance tasks (Baker, 2003). Postactivation potentiation is the result of phosphorylation on myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) (Somlyo and Somlyo, 2003). Phosphorylation of MCLK results in the actin-myosin interaction being more sensitive to calcium release in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Hamada et al., 2000a). The MCLK phosphorylates specific myosin components which increase the transition of cross bridges from a none force producing to a force producing bridge state (Hodgson et al., 2005). The result of increased myosin interactions results in an increase in rate of force production (RFD) (Hodgson et al., 2005). The objective of the current article is to investigate the contemporary body of research reporting increases in athletic performance following PAP. Identifying how different forms of PAP have enhanced athletic performance over different athletic variables.
Training status of subjects directly impacts the effect of PAP on performance (Hamada et al., 2000b). When comparing elite or experience trained athletes to untrained athlete’s significant increases in performance variables have been reported (Khamoui et al., 2009). The study of Chiu et al. (2003) identified increases in performance following maximal stimulus conditions on squat jump performance, with highly trained individuals producing significant increases (P< 0.05) in peak and average power when compared to untrained individuals. The findings suggest that trained individuals generate a greater PAP (Duthie et al., 2002). Rassier and Macintosh (2000) argue that differences in PAP between different ability groups is resultant of muscular fatigue, as PAP and fatigue co-exist in the skeletal muscles. The statement suggest that more advanced athletes do not generate a greater PAP effect compared to untrained athletes but have decreased levels of fatigue, due to training ability and increased physical performance (Rassier and Macintosh, 2000).
Several factors need to be considered when investigating the effect of PAP on performance such as the transfer of stimulus effect to performance tasks (Robbins, 2005). Exercises such as freestyle swimming which is broken down into 6 phases, where the hands do not make contact with a solid structure generating velocity in a circular motion under the water is difficult to replicate out of the water (Kilduff et al., 2011). The study of Sarramian et al. (2015) designed a PAP warm up protocol designed to enhance upper body force exertion transferable to a 50-meter freestyle swimming sprint. No PAP effect was observed as sprint times were none significant (P< 0.05), results were attributed to different activation patterns of pull ups, the exercise used in the study, to the propulsive phase of freestyle swimming (Figueiredo et al., 2013).
Loading of training stimulus, directly impacts the PAP dependant on testing requirements (Baudry and Duchataeu, 2007). Team sports invasion based games are typically characterised as repeated bouts of high intensity exercise (Fuller et al., 2006). Increasing physical performance prior to performance through creating a PAP effect will significantly (P< 0.05) increase performance (Bazett-jones et al., 2005). The increase of transferable skills such as sprinting can be applied to several invasions based sports (Enemark-Miller et al., 2009). Tasks requiring high velocity movements such as sprinting have reported significant increases in repeated sprint performance following the PAP effect of weighted alternating leg bounding exercises in the warm up, significantly (P< 0.05) increasing sprint performance were identified when compared to control groups and baseline assessment (Turner et al., 2015). Controversial to the findings of Turner et al. (2015), Chatzopoulos et al. (2007), identified significant increases in 10m and 30m sprint performance following, 10 sets of 1 rep back squat at 90% of one repetition maximum (1RM). Increases in 10m and 30 m sprint performance were observed 5-minute post completion of PAP, not immediately following PAP (Chatzopoulos et al., 2007). Whereas the study of Turner et al, (2015), observed significant (P < 0.05) decreases in sprint time immediately following weighted plyometric exercise. The findings suggest that load of stimulus directly effects recovery period effecting time of PAP and enhanced performance (Till and Cooke, 2009).
Recovery duration has direct implications upon PAP effect (Kilduff et al., 2007). The findings of Seitz et al. (2016), state that a 90 second recovery period is sufficient to significantly (P<0.05) increase standing horizontal broad jump distance following completion of pause back squats at 70% of 1RM with resistance bands (Seitz et al., 2016). Research supports the findings of Seitz et al. (2016), as Baker (2009) reported a 4.8% increase in 60kg bench press throw test following 60% of 1RM + 17.5kg bands bench press exercise for 3 repetitions for one set, in between testing procedures. Controversially the study of Mola et al. (2014), failed to identify the optimum recovery to elicit PAP, following 1RM back squat stimulus and the effect on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in a 20-minute period following the 1RM squat. Previous investigations have identified increases in CMJ performance at maximal resistance loads, however have failed to identify an optimal recovery period. Based upon previous research it is clear to see that loading and recovery rate significantly impact PAP effect, with more consistence results produced at 60-70% of 1RM with a less than 90 second recovery period (Baker, 2008).
The findings of Baker (2009), indicate that repeated bouts of stimulus prior to testing, significantly (P< 0.05) effect repeated measures of Peak Power output for the bench press throw test. Several sports require bouts of repeated high intensity exercise (Fletcher and Jones, 2004). The use of repeated stimulus during performance could enhance athletic ability of team sports athletes, competing on a regular basis; such as rugby seven players (Bevan et al., 2010). A sport characterised as repeated bouts of high intensity exercise, with a contact element which traditional play 4 matches a day in competition tournaments (Duthie et al., 2003). A consideration which should be used to enhance the coaching process (Wilson et al., 2013).
Previous research has clearly demonstrated the effect of PAP on transferable skills to sports such as measure of, velocity through sprinting, peak power and bench press or rate of force development during the CMJ (Crewther et al., 2011; Lim and Kong, 2013). However, little evidence is provided to support the use of PAP on sport specific skills such as the freestyle swimming stroke and other specific sporting movements (West et al., 2013). Several studies have investigated the effect of warm up procedure on the golf swing, with the purpose to increase club head velocity (CHV) through PAP (Gergley, 2009). Previous research has used different warm up designs both static and dynamic to elicit a PAP on swing performance, producing none significant (P> 0.05) findings (Gergley, 2010). The study of Read et al., (2013), is the only study to date to identify significant increases (P< 0.05) in CHV, through the use of CMJ prior to swing testing. Increases in performance were attributed to the time duration of the movement being relative to the golf swing (< 250 milliseconds) and similar sequential production of power from the feet, to the pelvis region (Read et al., 2013).
Training status of subjects directly impacts the effect of PAP on performance (Hamada et al., 2000b). When comparing elite or experience trained athletes to untrained athlete’s significant increases in performance variables have been reported (Khamoui et al., 2009). The study of Chiu et al. (2003) identified increases in performance following maximal stimulus conditions on squat jump performance, with highly trained individuals producing significant increases (P< 0.05) in peak and average power when compared to untrained individuals. The findings suggest that trained individuals generate a greater PAP (Duthie et al., 2002). Rassier and Macintosh (2000) argue that differences in PAP between different ability groups is resultant of muscular fatigue, as PAP and fatigue co-exist in the skeletal muscles. The statement suggest that more advanced athletes do not generate a greater PAP effect compared to untrained athletes but have decreased levels of fatigue, due to training ability and increased physical performance (Rassier and Macintosh, 2000).
Several factors need to be considered when investigating the effect of PAP on performance such as the transfer of stimulus effect to performance tasks (Robbins, 2005). Exercises such as freestyle swimming which is broken down into 6 phases, where the hands do not make contact with a solid structure generating velocity in a circular motion under the water is difficult to replicate out of the water (Kilduff et al., 2011). The study of Sarramian et al. (2015) designed a PAP warm up protocol designed to enhance upper body force exertion transferable to a 50-meter freestyle swimming sprint. No PAP effect was observed as sprint times were none significant (P< 0.05), results were attributed to different activation patterns of pull ups, the exercise used in the study, to the propulsive phase of freestyle swimming (Figueiredo et al., 2013).
Loading of training stimulus, directly impacts the PAP dependant on testing requirements (Baudry and Duchataeu, 2007). Team sports invasion based games are typically characterised as repeated bouts of high intensity exercise (Fuller et al., 2006). Increasing physical performance prior to performance through creating a PAP effect will significantly (P< 0.05) increase performance (Bazett-jones et al., 2005). The increase of transferable skills such as sprinting can be applied to several invasions based sports (Enemark-Miller et al., 2009). Tasks requiring high velocity movements such as sprinting have reported significant increases in repeated sprint performance following the PAP effect of weighted alternating leg bounding exercises in the warm up, significantly (P< 0.05) increasing sprint performance were identified when compared to control groups and baseline assessment (Turner et al., 2015). Controversial to the findings of Turner et al. (2015), Chatzopoulos et al. (2007), identified significant increases in 10m and 30m sprint performance following, 10 sets of 1 rep back squat at 90% of one repetition maximum (1RM). Increases in 10m and 30 m sprint performance were observed 5-minute post completion of PAP, not immediately following PAP (Chatzopoulos et al., 2007). Whereas the study of Turner et al, (2015), observed significant (P < 0.05) decreases in sprint time immediately following weighted plyometric exercise. The findings suggest that load of stimulus directly effects recovery period effecting time of PAP and enhanced performance (Till and Cooke, 2009).
Recovery duration has direct implications upon PAP effect (Kilduff et al., 2007). The findings of Seitz et al. (2016), state that a 90 second recovery period is sufficient to significantly (P<0.05) increase standing horizontal broad jump distance following completion of pause back squats at 70% of 1RM with resistance bands (Seitz et al., 2016). Research supports the findings of Seitz et al. (2016), as Baker (2009) reported a 4.8% increase in 60kg bench press throw test following 60% of 1RM + 17.5kg bands bench press exercise for 3 repetitions for one set, in between testing procedures. Controversially the study of Mola et al. (2014), failed to identify the optimum recovery to elicit PAP, following 1RM back squat stimulus and the effect on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in a 20-minute period following the 1RM squat. Previous investigations have identified increases in CMJ performance at maximal resistance loads, however have failed to identify an optimal recovery period. Based upon previous research it is clear to see that loading and recovery rate significantly impact PAP effect, with more consistence results produced at 60-70% of 1RM with a less than 90 second recovery period (Baker, 2008).
The findings of Baker (2009), indicate that repeated bouts of stimulus prior to testing, significantly (P< 0.05) effect repeated measures of Peak Power output for the bench press throw test. Several sports require bouts of repeated high intensity exercise (Fletcher and Jones, 2004). The use of repeated stimulus during performance could enhance athletic ability of team sports athletes, competing on a regular basis; such as rugby seven players (Bevan et al., 2010). A sport characterised as repeated bouts of high intensity exercise, with a contact element which traditional play 4 matches a day in competition tournaments (Duthie et al., 2003). A consideration which should be used to enhance the coaching process (Wilson et al., 2013).
Previous research has clearly demonstrated the effect of PAP on transferable skills to sports such as measure of, velocity through sprinting, peak power and bench press or rate of force development during the CMJ (Crewther et al., 2011; Lim and Kong, 2013). However, little evidence is provided to support the use of PAP on sport specific skills such as the freestyle swimming stroke and other specific sporting movements (West et al., 2013). Several studies have investigated the effect of warm up procedure on the golf swing, with the purpose to increase club head velocity (CHV) through PAP (Gergley, 2009). Previous research has used different warm up designs both static and dynamic to elicit a PAP on swing performance, producing none significant (P> 0.05) findings (Gergley, 2010). The study of Read et al., (2013), is the only study to date to identify significant increases (P< 0.05) in CHV, through the use of CMJ prior to swing testing. Increases in performance were attributed to the time duration of the movement being relative to the golf swing (< 250 milliseconds) and similar sequential production of power from the feet, to the pelvis region (Read et al., 2013).
References
Baker , D. (2003) Acute effect of alternating heavy and light resistances on power output during upper body complex power training. The journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 17, No. 3: 493-497.
Baker, D. (2009) Increases in bench throw power output when combined with heavier bench press plus accommodating chain resistance during complex training . Journal of Australian strength and conditioning . Vol. 17, No. 1: 3-11.
Baker, D.G. (2008) Increases in jump squat peak external power output when combined with accommodating resistance box squats during contrasting resistance complex training with short rest periods. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning . Vol. 6, No. 1: 10-18.
Bazett-jones, D.M., Winchester, J.B. and McBride, J.M. (2005) Effect of potentiation and stretching on maximal force, rate of force development, and range of motion. Journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 19, No. 2: 421-426
Bevan , H.R., Cunningham, D.J., Tooley, E.P., Owen, N.J., Cook, C.J. and Kilduff, L.P. (2010) Influence of postactivation potentiation on sprinting performance in professional rugby players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 24, No. 3: 701-705.
Chatzopoulos, D.E., Michailidis, C.J., Giannakos, A.K., Alexiou, K.C., Patikas, D.A., Antonopulos, C.B. and Kotzamanidis, C.M. (2007) Postactivation potentiation effects after heavy resistance exercise on running speed. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 21, No. 4: 1278-1281.
Chiu, L.Z., Fry, A.C., Weiss, L.W., Schilling, B.K., Brown, L.E. and Smith, S.L. (2003) Postactivation potentiation responses in athletic and recreationally trained individuals . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 17, No. 4: 671-677.
Crewther, B.T., Kilduff, L.P., Cook, C.J., Middleton, M.K., Bunce, P.J. and Yang, G.Z. (2011) The acute potentiating effects of back squats on athlete performance. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 25, No. 12: 3319- 3325.
Duchataeu, J. (2007) Postactivation potentiation in a human muscle: effect on the rate of torque development of tetanic and voluntary isometric contractions . journal of applied physiology . Vol. 102, No. 4: 1394-1401.
Duthie, G., Pyne, D. and Hooper, S. (2003) Applied physiology and game analysis of rugby union. Sports medicine. Vol. 33, No. 13: 973-991.
Duthie, G.M., Young, W.B. and Aitken, D.A. (2002) The acute effects of heavy loads on jump squat performance: an evaluation of the complex and contrast methods of power development . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 16, No. 4: 530-538.
Enemark-Miller, E.A., Seegmiller, J.G. and Rana, S.R. (2009) Physiological profile of women’s lacrosse players . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 1: 39-43. Baudry, S. and
Figueiredo , P., Sanders, R., Gorski, T., Vilas-Boas, J.P. and Fernandes, R.J. (2013) Kinematic and electromyographic changes during 200m front crawl at race pace . International journal of sports medicine. Vol. 34, No. 1: 49-55.
Fletcher, I.M. and Jones, B. (2004) The effect of different warm-up stretch protocols on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 18, No. 4: 885-888.
Fuller, C.W., Ekstrand, J., Junge, A., Anderson, T.E., Bahr, R., Dvorak, J., Hagglund, M., McCroy, P. and Eeuwisse, W.H. (2006) Consensus statement of injury definitions and data collection procedure studies of football (soccer) injuries . Scandinavian journal of medicine and science in sports . Vol. 16, No. 2: 83-92.
Gergley, J.C. (2009) Acute effects of passive static stretching during warm up on driver club head speed, distance, accuracy and consistent ball contact in young male competitive golfers . the journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 23, No. 3: 863-867.
Gergley, J.C. (2010) Latent effect of passive static stretching on driver club head speed, distance, accuracy and consistent ball contact in young male competitive golfers . Journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 24, No. 12: 3326-3333
Hamada , T., Sale , D.G., MacDougall, J.D. and Tarnopolsky, M.A. (2000a) Postactivation potentiation, fibre type, and twitch contraction time in human knee extensor muscles . Journal of applied physiology . Vol. 88, No. 6: 2131-2137.
Hamada, T.A.K.U., Sale, D.G. and MacDougall, J.D. (2000) Postactivation potentiation in enduranced-trained male athletes . medicine and science in sports and exercise. Vol. 32, No. 2: 403-411.
Hodgson, M., Docherty, D. and Robbins, D. (2005) Post-activation potentiation. Sports medicine. Vol. 35, No. 7: 585-595.
Khamoui, A.V., Brown, L.E., Coburn, J.W., Judelson, D.A., Uribe, B.P., Nguyen, D., Tran, T., Eurich, A.D. and Noffal, G.J. (2009) Effect of potentiating exercise volume on vertical jump parameters in recreationally trained men. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 5: 1465-1469.
Kilduff, L.P., Bevan, H.R., Kingsley, M.I., Owen, N.J., Bennett, M.A., Bunce, P.J., Hore, A.M., Maw, J.R. and Cunningham, D.J. (2007) Postactivation potentiation in professional rugby players: optimal recovery. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 21, No. 4: 1134-1138.
Kilduff, L.P., Cunningham, D.J., Owen, N.J., West, D.J., Bracken, R.M. and Cook, C.J. (2011) Effect of postactivation potentiation on swimming starts in international sprint swimmers . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 25, No. 9: 2418-2423.
Lim, J.J. and Kong, P.W. (2013) Effects of isometric and dynamic postactivation potentiation protocols on maximal sprint performance. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 10: 2730-2736.
Mola, J.N., Bruce-Low, S.S. and Burnet, S.J. (2014) Optimal recovery time for postactivation potentiation in professional soccer players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 28, No. 6: 1529-1537.
Rassier, D.E. and Macintosh, B.R. (2000) Coexistence of potentiation and fatigue in skeletal muscle. Brazilian journal of medical and biological research. Vol. 35, No. 5: 499-508.
Read , P.J., Miller, S.C. and Turner, A.C. (2013) The effects of postactivation potentiation on golf club head speed. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 6: 1579-1582.
Robbins, D.W. (2005) Postactivation potentiation and its practical applicability. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 19, No. 2: 453-458.
Sale , D.G. (2002) Postactivation potentiation; role in human performance . Exercise and sport science reviews . Vol. 30, No. 3: 138-43.
Sarramian, V.G., Turner, A.N. and Greenhalgh, A.K. (2015) effect of postactivation potentiation on fifty-meter freestyle in national swimmers. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 29, No. 4: 1003-1009.
Seitz, L.B., Mina, M.A. and Haff, G.G. (2016) Postactivation potentiation of horizontal jump performance across multiple sets . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 1, No. 1: 1-21
Somlyo , A.P. and Somlyo, A.V. (2003) Ca2+ sensitivity of smooth muscle and nonmuscle myosin II: modulated by G proteins, kinases, and myosin phosphates. Physiological reviews . Vol. 83, No. 4: 1325-1358
Till, K.A. and Cooke, C. (2009) The effects of postactivation potentiation on sprint and jump performance of male academy soccer players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 7: 1960-1967.
Turner, A.P., Bellhouse , S., Kilduff, L.P. and Russell, M. (2015) Postactivation potentiation of sprint performance using plyometric exercise. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 29, No. 2: 343-350.
West, D.J., Dietzig, B.M., Bracken, R.M., Cunningham, D.J., Crewther, B.T., Cook, C.J. and Kilduff, L.P. (2013) Influence of post-warm-up recovery time on swim performance in international swimmers. journal of science and medicine in sports. Vol. 16, No. 2: 172-176.
Wilson, J.M., Duncan, N.M., Marin, P.J. and Brown, L.E. (2013) Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power: effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 3: 854-859
Baker, D. (2009) Increases in bench throw power output when combined with heavier bench press plus accommodating chain resistance during complex training . Journal of Australian strength and conditioning . Vol. 17, No. 1: 3-11.
Baker, D.G. (2008) Increases in jump squat peak external power output when combined with accommodating resistance box squats during contrasting resistance complex training with short rest periods. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning . Vol. 6, No. 1: 10-18.
Bazett-jones, D.M., Winchester, J.B. and McBride, J.M. (2005) Effect of potentiation and stretching on maximal force, rate of force development, and range of motion. Journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 19, No. 2: 421-426
Bevan , H.R., Cunningham, D.J., Tooley, E.P., Owen, N.J., Cook, C.J. and Kilduff, L.P. (2010) Influence of postactivation potentiation on sprinting performance in professional rugby players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 24, No. 3: 701-705.
Chatzopoulos, D.E., Michailidis, C.J., Giannakos, A.K., Alexiou, K.C., Patikas, D.A., Antonopulos, C.B. and Kotzamanidis, C.M. (2007) Postactivation potentiation effects after heavy resistance exercise on running speed. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 21, No. 4: 1278-1281.
Chiu, L.Z., Fry, A.C., Weiss, L.W., Schilling, B.K., Brown, L.E. and Smith, S.L. (2003) Postactivation potentiation responses in athletic and recreationally trained individuals . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 17, No. 4: 671-677.
Crewther, B.T., Kilduff, L.P., Cook, C.J., Middleton, M.K., Bunce, P.J. and Yang, G.Z. (2011) The acute potentiating effects of back squats on athlete performance. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 25, No. 12: 3319- 3325.
Duchataeu, J. (2007) Postactivation potentiation in a human muscle: effect on the rate of torque development of tetanic and voluntary isometric contractions . journal of applied physiology . Vol. 102, No. 4: 1394-1401.
Duthie, G., Pyne, D. and Hooper, S. (2003) Applied physiology and game analysis of rugby union. Sports medicine. Vol. 33, No. 13: 973-991.
Duthie, G.M., Young, W.B. and Aitken, D.A. (2002) The acute effects of heavy loads on jump squat performance: an evaluation of the complex and contrast methods of power development . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 16, No. 4: 530-538.
Enemark-Miller, E.A., Seegmiller, J.G. and Rana, S.R. (2009) Physiological profile of women’s lacrosse players . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 1: 39-43. Baudry, S. and
Figueiredo , P., Sanders, R., Gorski, T., Vilas-Boas, J.P. and Fernandes, R.J. (2013) Kinematic and electromyographic changes during 200m front crawl at race pace . International journal of sports medicine. Vol. 34, No. 1: 49-55.
Fletcher, I.M. and Jones, B. (2004) The effect of different warm-up stretch protocols on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 18, No. 4: 885-888.
Fuller, C.W., Ekstrand, J., Junge, A., Anderson, T.E., Bahr, R., Dvorak, J., Hagglund, M., McCroy, P. and Eeuwisse, W.H. (2006) Consensus statement of injury definitions and data collection procedure studies of football (soccer) injuries . Scandinavian journal of medicine and science in sports . Vol. 16, No. 2: 83-92.
Gergley, J.C. (2009) Acute effects of passive static stretching during warm up on driver club head speed, distance, accuracy and consistent ball contact in young male competitive golfers . the journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 23, No. 3: 863-867.
Gergley, J.C. (2010) Latent effect of passive static stretching on driver club head speed, distance, accuracy and consistent ball contact in young male competitive golfers . Journal of strength and conditioning research . Vol. 24, No. 12: 3326-3333
Hamada , T., Sale , D.G., MacDougall, J.D. and Tarnopolsky, M.A. (2000a) Postactivation potentiation, fibre type, and twitch contraction time in human knee extensor muscles . Journal of applied physiology . Vol. 88, No. 6: 2131-2137.
Hamada, T.A.K.U., Sale, D.G. and MacDougall, J.D. (2000) Postactivation potentiation in enduranced-trained male athletes . medicine and science in sports and exercise. Vol. 32, No. 2: 403-411.
Hodgson, M., Docherty, D. and Robbins, D. (2005) Post-activation potentiation. Sports medicine. Vol. 35, No. 7: 585-595.
Khamoui, A.V., Brown, L.E., Coburn, J.W., Judelson, D.A., Uribe, B.P., Nguyen, D., Tran, T., Eurich, A.D. and Noffal, G.J. (2009) Effect of potentiating exercise volume on vertical jump parameters in recreationally trained men. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 5: 1465-1469.
Kilduff, L.P., Bevan, H.R., Kingsley, M.I., Owen, N.J., Bennett, M.A., Bunce, P.J., Hore, A.M., Maw, J.R. and Cunningham, D.J. (2007) Postactivation potentiation in professional rugby players: optimal recovery. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 21, No. 4: 1134-1138.
Kilduff, L.P., Cunningham, D.J., Owen, N.J., West, D.J., Bracken, R.M. and Cook, C.J. (2011) Effect of postactivation potentiation on swimming starts in international sprint swimmers . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 25, No. 9: 2418-2423.
Lim, J.J. and Kong, P.W. (2013) Effects of isometric and dynamic postactivation potentiation protocols on maximal sprint performance. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 10: 2730-2736.
Mola, J.N., Bruce-Low, S.S. and Burnet, S.J. (2014) Optimal recovery time for postactivation potentiation in professional soccer players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 28, No. 6: 1529-1537.
Rassier, D.E. and Macintosh, B.R. (2000) Coexistence of potentiation and fatigue in skeletal muscle. Brazilian journal of medical and biological research. Vol. 35, No. 5: 499-508.
Read , P.J., Miller, S.C. and Turner, A.C. (2013) The effects of postactivation potentiation on golf club head speed. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 6: 1579-1582.
Robbins, D.W. (2005) Postactivation potentiation and its practical applicability. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 19, No. 2: 453-458.
Sale , D.G. (2002) Postactivation potentiation; role in human performance . Exercise and sport science reviews . Vol. 30, No. 3: 138-43.
Sarramian, V.G., Turner, A.N. and Greenhalgh, A.K. (2015) effect of postactivation potentiation on fifty-meter freestyle in national swimmers. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 29, No. 4: 1003-1009.
Seitz, L.B., Mina, M.A. and Haff, G.G. (2016) Postactivation potentiation of horizontal jump performance across multiple sets . Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 1, No. 1: 1-21
Somlyo , A.P. and Somlyo, A.V. (2003) Ca2+ sensitivity of smooth muscle and nonmuscle myosin II: modulated by G proteins, kinases, and myosin phosphates. Physiological reviews . Vol. 83, No. 4: 1325-1358
Till, K.A. and Cooke, C. (2009) The effects of postactivation potentiation on sprint and jump performance of male academy soccer players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 23, No. 7: 1960-1967.
Turner, A.P., Bellhouse , S., Kilduff, L.P. and Russell, M. (2015) Postactivation potentiation of sprint performance using plyometric exercise. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 29, No. 2: 343-350.
West, D.J., Dietzig, B.M., Bracken, R.M., Cunningham, D.J., Crewther, B.T., Cook, C.J. and Kilduff, L.P. (2013) Influence of post-warm-up recovery time on swim performance in international swimmers. journal of science and medicine in sports. Vol. 16, No. 2: 172-176.
Wilson, J.M., Duncan, N.M., Marin, P.J. and Brown, L.E. (2013) Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power: effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. Journal of strength and conditioning research. Vol. 27, No. 3: 854-859